Exploring Al-Jahiz on Eloquence: Cross-Cultural Definitions of Balaghah in Al-Bayan wa Al-Tabyeen
Question:
Assalamo Alaikum,
I pray Almighty to find you in good health.
Of late, I was studying up. It was Al-Bayan wa-Al-Tabyeen of Al-Jahiz (775-868 A.D.). An erudite para stuck me up. I was, indeed, at a loss. I could not skip it over. However, I, with your genial and benign help, hope to explore this uphill task. Al-Jahiz writes:
’’خبَّرنی أبو الزُّبیر کاتب محمَّدِ بن حَسَّان، وحدّثنی محمد بن أبان ولا أدری کاتب مَن کان — قالا:
قیل للفارسیّ: ما البلاغۃ؟ قال: معرفۃ الفَصۡل من الوصل۔
وقیل للیونانیّ:ما البلاغۃ؟ قال: تصحیح الأقسام، واختیار الکَلام۔
وقیل للرومیّ: ما البلاغۃ؟ قال: حسن الاقتضاب عن البداہۃ، والغَزارۃ یَوۡمَ الإطالۃ۔
وقیل للھندیّ: ما البلاغۃ؟ قال: وضُوح الدّلالۃ، وانتہاز الفرصۃ، وحسن الإشارۃ۔
وقال بعضُ أھل الھند: جِمَاع البلاغۃ البَصر بالحُجّۃ، والمعرفۃُ بمواضع الفرصۃ۔
ثم قال: ومن البصر بالحُجۃ، والمعرفِۃ بمواضع الفُرصۃ، أن تدَعَ الإفصاح بہا إلی الکنایۃ عنہا، إذا کان الإفصاحُ أوعَرَ طریقۃً۔ وربما کان الإضرابُ عنہا صفحاً أبلَغَ فی الدَّرَک، وأحقَّ بالظَّفَر۔ (الجاحظ: البیان والتبیین: جلد ۱، صفحہ ۸۸)
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Answer:
Wa ʿalaykum as-salām wa raḥmatullāh,
May Allah bless you for your dedication to deep reading and reflection on al-Bayān wa al-Tabyīn, a seminal masterpiece in Arabic rhetoric and adab. The passage you have cited from al-Jāḥiẓ (vol. 1, p. 88 in many editions) is indeed one of the most profound discussions in early Arabic thought on balāghah (eloquence). Below is an annotation and commentary on the quotations you shared, unpacking their rhetorical, linguistic, and philosophical implications.
In this passage, al-Jāḥiẓ records how thinkers from different cultural traditions, Persian, Greek, Roman, and Indian, defined balāghah (eloquence). He uses their sayings to explore how diverse civilizations conceptualized the art of effective speech, persuasion, and stylistic precision. He then concludes with his own nuanced reflection on the nature of eloquence: that true rhetorical mastery sometimes lies in subtlety, indirection, and restraint rather than in explicit statement.
- قول الفارسيّ: “معرفۃ الفَصْل من الوصل”
“Eloquence is the knowledge of what should be separated and what should be joined.”
The Persian’s definition focuses on syntactic and logical precision. In Arabic rhetoric, faṣl wa waṣl (separation and conjunction) refer to the judicious use of connectives and pauses in discourse. Knowing when to link ideas and when to let them stand apart reflects mastery of logical structure and stylistic clarity. This definition sees eloquence as discernment, the ability to balance unity and distinction within speech, ensuring that form reflects thought accurately.
This resonates with Aristotelian logic and the grammatical sophistication of Persian chancery prose (inshāʾ), where rhetorical grace arises from structural harmony. - قول اليونانيّ: “تصحيح الأقسام، واختيار الكلام”
“Eloquence is the correction of divisions and the choice of words.”
The Greek definition emphasizes method and diction, the proper organization (taṣḥīḥ al-aqṣām) of discourse (dividing arguments coherently) and lexical selection (ikhtiyār al-kalām). This echoes Greek rhetorical theory, particularly Aristotle’s Rhetoric, where effective speech rests on logical division (diairesis) and apt word choice (lexis).
The concern here is logos, clarity through structured reasoning and stylistic appropriateness. - قول الروميّ: “حسن الاقتضاب عن البداہۃ، والغزارة يوم الإطالة”
“Eloquence is graceful impromptu brevity, and abundance when the occasion requires length.”
The Roman’s definition joins spontaneity and abundance, two opposing but complementary rhetorical virtues. Iqtidaab ʿan al-badāhah means to speak concisely and elegantly on the spur of the moment; al-ghazārah yawma al-iṭālah means to display richness and depth when elaboration is required.
This mirrors Roman oratorical ideals (e.g., Cicero, Quintilian): the eloquent speaker must be both ready in improvisation and ample in discourse. Eloquence is adaptability to context, knowing how much to say and when. - قول الهنديّ: “وضوح الدلالة، وانتهاز الفرصة، وحسن الإشارة”
“Eloquence is clarity of meaning, seizing the opportunity, and elegance of gesture (or allusion).”
Here, the Indian thinker defines eloquence as a union of semantic clarity, timeliness, and nonverbal grace.
Wuḍūḥ al-dalālah, intelligibility; the message must be immediately comprehensible.
Intihāz al-furṣah, opportuneness; rhetorical timing is crucial.
Ḥusn al-ishārah, refinement of hint or gesture; eloquence extends beyond words to communicative intuition.
This reflects a more psychological and pragmatic view of rhetoric, close to Indian aesthetic theories of dhvani (suggestion) and rasa (emotive flavour). - قول بعض أهل الهند: “جِماع البلاغة البصر بالحجة، والمعرفة بمواضع الفرصة”
“The essence of eloquence is insight into argument and awareness of the proper moment.”
This further elaboration condenses eloquence into two intellectual faculties:
al-baṣr bi’l-ḥujjah, perceptiveness in argument, the capacity to discern the strength of proof.
al-maʿrifah bi-mawāḍiʿ al-furṣah, knowledge of opportune occasions, or rhetorical kairos.
This definition aligns with philosophical rhetoric: eloquence as wisdom in persuasion, the ability to apply reason and timing effectively, echoing Aristotle’s ethos and kairos. - تعليق الجاحظ:
“ومن البصر بالحُجَّة، والمعرفة بمواضع الفرصة، أن تدع الإفصاح بها إلى الكناية عنها، إذا كان الإفصاح أوعر طريقةً. وربما كان الإضراب عنها صفحاً أبلغ في الدرك، وأحق بالظفر.”
“And part of discernment in argument and awareness of the proper occasion is that you should refrain from explicit statement and instead employ allusion when directness would be rougher in manner. Indeed, sometimes turning away from the matter altogether achieves understanding more effectively and ensures greater success.”
Here al-Jāḥiẓ synthesizes the foreign definitions into an Arabic aesthetic principle:
Eloquence lies not merely in clarity, but in strategic concealment (kināyah) and restraint (iḍrāb ʿanhā ṣafḥan).
When explicitness (ifṣāḥ) would offend taste or subtlety, indirection conveys more and persuades better.
This is the ethos of classical Arabic rhetoric, where taʿrīḍ, ishārah, and kināyah are higher forms of expression than crude directness.
Thus, eloquence becomes both an intellectual and moral discipline, knowing not only what to say, but what not to say, and when.
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